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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a>, <a href="Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a> or <a href="Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo (religion)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the academic journal, see <a href="The_Monist" title="The Monist">The Monist</a>. For the legal concept, see <a href="Monism_and_dualism_in_international_law" title="Monism and dualism in international law">Monism and dualism in international law</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Apatheism" title="Apatheism">Apatheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_theism" title="Classical theism">Classical theism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>

<li><a href="Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ietsism" title="Ietsism">Ietsism</a></li>

<li><a href="Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Ignosticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Kathenotheism" title="Kathenotheism">Kathenotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Omnism" title="Omnism">Omnism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>

<li><a href="Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li>

<li><a href="Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">Creator</a></li>

<li><a href="Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li>

<li><a href="God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect</a></li>

<li><a href="Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">Monad</a></li>

<li><a href="Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">Mother</a></li>

<li><a href="Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></li>

<li><a href="Supreme_deity" title="Supreme deity">Supreme</a></li>

<li><a href="Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li>

<li><a href="Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li>

<li><a href="Dualism_in_cosmology#Duotheism,_bitheism,_ditheism" title="Dualism in cosmology">Ditheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal</a></li>

<li><a href="Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">In particular religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;">

<ul><li><a href="God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hayyi_Rabbi" title="Hayyi Rabbi">Mandaeism</a></li>

<li><a href="Samaritanism#Beliefs" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Iranian</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;">

<ul><li><a href="God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>

<li><a href="Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Bon" title="Bon">Yungdrung Bon</a></li>

<li><a href="Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;">

<li><a href="Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a></li>

<li><a href="Hongjun_Laozu" title="Hongjun Laozu">Hongjun Laozu</a></li></ul></td>

</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Eternity#God_and_eternity" title="Eternity">Eternalness</a></li>

<li><a href="Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_of_God" title="Gender of God">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names</a> (<a href="God_(word)" title="God (word)">"God"</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">Omnibenevolence</a></li>

<li><a href="Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">Omnipotence</a></li>

<li><a href="Omnipresence" title="Omnipresence">Omnipresence</a></li>

<li><a href="Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Aseity" title="Aseity">Aseity</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">Transcendence</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Experiences</li><li>Practices</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">Belief</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li>

<li><a href="Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>

<li><a href="Gnosis" title="Gnosis">Gnosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li>

<li><a href="Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a></li>

<li><a href="Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="God_complex" title="God complex">God complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a> (<a href="Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_text" title="Religious text">texts</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Portrayals_of_God_in_popular_media" title="Portrayals of God in popular media">Portrayals of God in popular media</a></li>

<li><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3AReligion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<p><b>Monism</b> attributes oneness or singleness (<a href="Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw external" title="wikt:μόνος">μόνος</a></span>) to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:

</p>

<ul><li>Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in <a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> everything is derived from <a href="Neoplatonism#The_One" title="Neoplatonism">The One</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this view only the One is ontologically fundamental or prior to everything else.</li>

<li>Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there exists only a single thing, the <a href="Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Substance monism asserts that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossLivingstone1974_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossLivingstone1974-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substance monism posits that only one kind of substance exists, although many things may be made up of this substance, e.g., matter or mind.</li>

<li><a href="Dual-aspect_monism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual-aspect monism">Dual-aspect monism</a> is the view that the mental and the physical are two aspects of, or perspectives on, the same substance.</li>

<li><a href="Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a> believes the fundamental nature of reality to be neither mental nor physical; in other words it is "neutral".</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div>

<p>There are two sorts of definitions for monism:

</p>

<ul><li>The wide definition: a philosophy is monistic if it postulates unity of the origin of all things; all existing things return to a source that is distinct from them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The restricted definition: this requires not only unity of origin but also unity of <a href="Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> and <a href="Essence" title="Essence">essence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Although the term <i>monism</i> is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the <a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>, it has also been used to typify religious traditions. In modern Hinduism, the term "absolute monism" has been applied to <a href="Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChande2000277_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChande2000277-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDasgupta199270_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDasgupta199270-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though Philip Renard points out that this may be a Western interpretation, bypassing the intuitive understanding of a nondual reality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard1999_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard1999-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is more generally categorized by scholars as a form of absolute <a href="Nondualism" title="Nondualism">nondualism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Material monism can be traced back to the <a href="Pre-Socratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic">pre-Socratic</a> philosophers who sought to understand the arche or basic principle of the universe in terms of different material causes. These included <a href="Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a>, who argued that the basis of everything was water, <a href="Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>, who claimed it was air, and <a href="Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> who believed it to be fire. Later, <a href="Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> described the world as "One", which could not change in any way. <a href="Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> defended this view of everything being a single entity through his paradoxes, which aim to show the existence of time, motion and space to be illusionary.

</p><p><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> argued that 'God or Nature' (<i>Deus sive Natura</i>) is the only <a href="Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> of the universe, which can be referred to as either '<a href="God" title="God">God</a>' or '<a href="Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a>' (the two being interchangeable). This is because God/Nature has all the possible attributes and no two substances can share an attribute, which means there can be no other substances than God/Nature.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Monism has been discussed thoroughly in Indian philosophy and <a href="Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> throughout their history starting as early as the <a href="Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a>. The term <i>monism</i> was introduced in the 18th century by <a href="Christian_von_Wolff" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian von Wolff">Christian von Wolff</a> in his work <i>Logic</i> (1728),<sup id="cite_ref-New_Dictionary_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Dictionary-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to designate types of philosophical thought in which the attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of body and mind and explain all phenomena by one unifying principle, or as manifestations of a single substance.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Dictionary_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Dictionary-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a> in philosophy examines the relationship between <a href="Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and matter, and in particular the relationship between <a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. The problem was addressed by <a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> in the 17th century, resulting in <a href="Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Cartesian dualism</a>, and by pre-<a href="Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> philosophers,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennian philosophy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in earlier Asian and more specifically Indian traditions.

</p><p>Monism was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by <a href="Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a> and <a href="Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter the term was more broadly used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opponent thesis of <a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualism</a> also was broadened, to include pluralism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is "systematically ambiguous".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to <a href="Jonathan_Schaffer" title="Jonathan Schaffer">Jonathan Schaffer</a>, monism lost popularity due to the emergence of <a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> in the early twentieth century, which revolted against the neo-Hegelians. <a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a> and <a href="A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>, who were strong proponents of <a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, "ridiculed the whole question as incoherent <a href="Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaffer2010_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer2010-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The mind–body problem has reemerged in social psychology and related fields, with the interest in mind–body interaction<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the rejection of Cartesian mind–body dualism in the <i><a href="Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">identity thesis</a></i>, a modern form of monism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195–196_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195–196-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monism is also still relevant to the <a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where various positions are defended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik2010_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMandik2010-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin2009_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin2009-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>

<p>Different types of monism include:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schaffer_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaffer-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance</a> monism, "the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or appearances of a single substance"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Attributive monism, "the view that whatever the number of substances, they are of a single ultimate kind"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Epistemological monism, where "ultimately, everything that can be thought, observed and engaged, shares one conceptual system of interaction, however complex."<sup id="cite_ref-Sariel_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sariel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Partial monism, "within a given realm of being (however many there may be) there is only one substance"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Existence monism, "the view that there is only one concrete object <a href="Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">token</a> (The One, "Τὸ Ἕν" or the <a href="Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">Monad</a>)"<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Priority monism, "the whole is prior to its parts" or "the world has parts, but the parts are dependent fragments of an integrated whole"<sup id="cite_ref-Schaffer_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaffer-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Property monism, "the view that all properties are of a single type (e.g., only physical properties exist)"</li>

<li>Genus monism, "the doctrine that there is a highest category; e.g., being"<sup id="cite_ref-Schaffer_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaffer-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Views contrasting with monism are:

</p>

<ul><li>Metaphysical dualism, which asserts that there are two ultimately irreconcilable substances or realities such as Good and Evil, for example, <a href="Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> and <a href="Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sariel_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sariel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysical_pluralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical pluralism">Metaphysical pluralism</a>, which asserts three or more fundamental substances or realities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysical_nihilism" title="Metaphysical nihilism">Metaphysical nihilism</a>, negates any of the above categories (substances, properties, concrete objects, etc.).</li></ul>

<p>Monism in modern <a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a> can be divided into three broad categories:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Idealist" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealist">Idealist</a>, mentalistic monism, which holds that only mind or spirit exists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a>, which holds that one sort of thing fundamentally exists,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMandik201076-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to which both the mental and the physical can be reduced</li>

<li>Material monism (also called <a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> and <a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>), which holds that the material world is primary, and consciousness arises through the interaction with the material world<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMandik201076-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a>, according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMandik201076-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Reductive_physicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductive physicalism">Reductive physicalism</a>, according to which mental things do exist and are a kind of physical thing<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMandik201076-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories, such as <a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">functionalism</a>, <a href="Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">anomalous monism</a>, and <a href="Reflexive_monism" title="Reflexive monism">reflexive monism</a>. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of "real".

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monistic_philosophers">Monistic philosophers</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Socratic">Pre-Socratic</h3></div>

<p>While the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following <a href="Pre-Socratic_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic philosophers">pre-Socratic philosophers</a> thought in monistic terms:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19701–7_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19701–7-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a>: Water</li>

<li><a href="Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a>: <i><a href="Apeiron" title="Apeiron">Apeiron</a></i> (meaning 'the undefined infinite'). Reality is some, one thing, but we cannot know what.</li>

<li><a href="Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes of Miletus</a>: Air</li>

<li><a href="Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>: Change, symbolized by fire (in that everything is in constant flux).</li>

<li><a href="Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a>: Being or Reality is an unmoving perfect sphere, unchanging, undivided.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19708–9_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19708–9-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Socrates">Post-Socrates</h3></div>

<ul><li>Neopythagorians such as <a href="Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius of Tyana</a> centered their cosmologies on the <a href="Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">Monad</a> or One.</li>

<li><a href="Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a> taught that there is only one substance, identified as God.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Middle Platonism under such works as those by <a href="Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius</a> taught that the Universe emanates from the Monad or One.</li>

<li><a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> is monistic. <a href="Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> taught that there was an ineffable transcendent god, 'The One', of which subsequent realities were emanations. From The One emanates the Divine Mind (<a href="Nous" title="Nous">Nous</a>), the Cosmic Soul (<a href="Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">Psyche</a>), and the World (<a href="Cosmos" title="Cosmos">Cosmos</a>).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li>

<li><a href="F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a></li>

<li><a href="Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="David_Bentley_Hart" title="David Bentley Hart">David Bentley Hart</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Christopher_Langan" title="Christopher Langan">Christopher Langan</a></li>

<li><a href="Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgi Plekhanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Schaffer" title="Jonathan Schaffer">Jonathan Schaffer</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Jonas" title="Hans Jonas">Hans Jonas</a><sup id="cite_ref-Sariel_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sariel-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Rupert_Sheldrake" title="Rupert Sheldrake">Rupert Sheldrake</a></li>

<li><a href="B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li>

<li><a href="Alan_Watts" title="Alan Watts">Alan Watts</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monistic_neuroscientists">Monistic neuroscientists</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Gy%C3%B6rgy_Buzs%C3%A1ki" title="György Buzsáki">György Buzsáki</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Friston" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Friston">Karl Friston</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_Solms" title="Mark Solms">Mark Solms</a></li>

<li><a href="Rodolfo_Llinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodolfo Llinas">Rodolfo Llinas</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li>

<li><a href="Roger_Sperry" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Sperry">Roger Sperry</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pantheism">Pantheism</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></div>

<p>Pantheism is the belief that everything composes an all-encompassing, <a href="Immanent" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanent">immanent</a> God,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that the <a href="Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> (or <a href="Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>) is identical with <a href="Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pantheists thus do or do not believe in a <a href="Personal_god" title="Personal god">personal</a> or <a href="Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">anthropomorphic</a> god, but believe that interpretations of the term differ.

</p><p>Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher <a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose <i><a href="Ethics_(Spinoza)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i> was an answer to <a href="Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.<sup id="cite_ref-Plumptre-1879_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plumptre-1879-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spinoza held that the two are the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance.<sup id="cite_ref-Plumptre-1879_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plumptre-1879-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="H._P._Owen" class="mw-redirect" title="H. P. Owen">H. P. Owen</a> claimed that

</p>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Pantheists are "monists" ... they believe that there is only one Being, and that all other forms of reality are either modes (or appearances) of it or identical with it.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>Pantheism is closely related to monism, as pantheists too believe all of reality is one substance, called Universe, God or Nature. <a href="Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a>, a slightly different concept, is explained below in the next section.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the most famous pantheists are the <a href="Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>, <a href="Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> and <a href="Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Panentheism">Panentheism</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></div>

<p>Panentheism (from <a href="Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πᾶν</span></span> (pân) "all"; <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐν</span></span> (en) "in"; and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">θεός</span></span> (theós) "God"; "all-in-God") is a belief system that <a href="Postulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Postulate">posits</a> that the divine (be it a <a href="Monotheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotheistic">monotheistic</a> <a href="God" title="God">God</a>, <a href="Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a> <a href="Gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gods">gods</a>, or an eternal cosmic animating force) interpenetrates every part of nature, but is not one with nature. Panentheism differentiates itself from <a href="Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>, which holds that the divine is synonymous with the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Erwin_Fahlbusch,_Geoffrey_William_Bromiley,_David_B._Barrett_1999_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erwin_Fahlbusch,_Geoffrey_William_Bromiley,_David_B._Barrett_1999-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In panentheism, there are two types of substance, "pan" the <a href="Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> and God. The universe and the divine are not <a href="Ontologically" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontologically">ontologically</a> equivalent. God is viewed as the eternal animating force within the universe. In some forms of panentheism, the <a href="Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> exists within God, who in turn "<a href="Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcends</a>", "pervades" or is "in" the cosmos.

</p><p>While pantheism asserts that 'All is God', panentheism claims that God animates all of the universe, and also transcends the universe. In addition, some forms indicate that the universe is contained within God,<sup id="cite_ref-Erwin_Fahlbusch,_Geoffrey_William_Bromiley,_David_B._Barrett_1999_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erwin_Fahlbusch,_Geoffrey_William_Bromiley,_David_B._Barrett_1999-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like in the Judaic concept of <a href="Tzimtzum" title="Tzimtzum">Tzimtzum</a>. Much <a href="Hindu_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu thought">Hindu thought</a> is highly characterized by panentheism and pantheism.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a> has argued for such a concept within Christian theology, as has <a href="Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">liberal</a> biblical scholar <a href="Marcus_Borg" title="Marcus Borg">Marcus Borg</a> and <a href="Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">mystical</a> theologian <a href="Matthew_Fox_(priest)" title="Matthew Fox (priest)">Matthew Fox</a>, an Episcopal priest.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pandeism">Pandeism</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></div>

<p>Pandeism or pan-deism (from <a href="Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">πᾶν</span>, <small><a href="Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pan</i></span>, <small><a href="Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'all' and <a href="Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la"><a href="Deus" title="Deus">deus</a></i> meaning "<a href="God" title="God">god</a>" in the sense of <a href="Deism" title="Deism">deism</a>) is a term describing beliefs coherently incorporating or mixing <a href="Logic" title="Logic">logically</a> reconcilable elements of pantheism (that "God", or a metaphysically equivalent <a href="Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">creator deity</a>, is identical to <a href="Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a>) and <a href="Deism#Enlightenment_Deism" title="Deism">classical deism</a> (that the creator-god who designed the universe no longer exists in a status where it can be reached, and can instead be confirmed only by reason). It is therefore most particularly the belief that the creator of the universe actually became the universe, and so ceased to exist as a separate entity.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Through this <a href="Synergy" title="Synergy">synergy</a> pandeism claims to answer primary objections to deism (why would God create and then not interact with the universe?) and to pantheism (how did the universe originate and what is its purpose?).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_and_East_Asian_religions">Indian and East Asian religions</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h4></div>

<p>The central problem in Asian (religious) philosophy is not the body-mind problem, but the search for an unchanging Real or Absolute beyond the world of appearances and changing phenomena,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1991_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1991-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the search for liberation from <a href="Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a> and the liberation from the <a href="Cycle_of_rebirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycle of rebirth">cycle of rebirth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuligandla1997_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuligandla1997-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Hinduism, <a href="Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance-ontology</a> prevails, seeing <a href="Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> as the unchanging real beyond the world of <a href="Maya_(illusion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya (illusion)">appearances</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuligandla199750_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuligandla199750-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Buddhism, <a href="Process_ontology" title="Process ontology">process ontology</a> is prevalent,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuligandla199750_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuligandla199750-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> seeing reality as <a href="Sunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyata">empty</a> of an unchanging essence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1992_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1992-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Characteristic for various Asian philosophy, technology and religions is the discernment of levels of truth,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoy19889-11_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoy19889-11-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an emphasis on intuitive-experiential understanding of the Absolute<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambachan1994_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambachan1994-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawley2006_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawley2006-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharf1995_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharf1995-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard199959_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard199959-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jnana">jnana</a>, <a href="Bodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhi">bodhi</a> and <a href="Kensho" class="mw-redirect" title="Kensho">jianxing: (Chinese; 見性)</a>, and the technology of <a href="Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a> used within <a href="East_Asian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian medicine">East Asian medicine</a> with an emphasis on the integration of these levels of truth and its understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard199931_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard199931-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaezumiGlassman2007_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaezumiGlassman2007-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, and <a href="Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Hindu denominations</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Vedanta">Vedanta</h5></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></div>

<p>Vedanta is the inquiry into and systematisation of the Vedas and Upanishads, to harmonise the various and contrasting ideas that can be found in those texts. Within Vedanta, different schools exist:<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a>, qualified monism, is from the school of <a href="Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a>, in-essence monism, is the school of <a href="Vallabha" title="Vallabha">Vallabha</a>;</li>

<li><a href="Dvaitadvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaitadvaita">Dvaitadvaita</a>, differential monism, is a school founded by <a href="Nimbarka" title="Nimbarka">Nimbarka</a>;</li>

<li><a href="Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a>, a school of <a href="Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> founded by <a href="Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya Mahaprabhu</a> representing the philosophy of <i>inconceivable one-ness and difference</i>. It can be understood as an integration of the strict dualist (dvaita) theology of <a href="Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a> and the qualified monism (vishishtadvaita) of <a href="Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Modern_Hinduism">Modern Hinduism</h5></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu reform movements</a></div>

<p>The colonisation of India by the British had a major impact on Hindu society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, leading Hindu intellectuals started to study western culture and philosophy, integrating several western notions into Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This modernised Hinduism, at its turn, has gained popularity in the west.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambachan1994_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERambachan1994-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A major role was played in the 19th century by <a href="Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> in the <a href="Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">revival of Hinduism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDense1999191_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDense1999191-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the <a href="Ramakrishna_Mission" title="Ramakrishna Mission">Ramakrishna Mission</a>. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called <a href="Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukerji1983_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukerji1983-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Advaita, Shankara suggests meditation and <a href="Nirvikalpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirvikalpa">Nirvikalpa</a> Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of <i>Brahman</i> and <i><a href="%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComans1993_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans1993-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not the highest goal itself:

</p>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[Y]oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness. This approach is different from the classical Yoga of complete thought suppression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComans1993_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans1993-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>Vivekananda, according to <a href="Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Gavin Flood</a>, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996257_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996257-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Flood, Vivekananda's view of Hinduism is the most common among Hindus today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996259_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996259-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This monism, according to Flood, is at the foundation of earlier Upanishads, to theosophy in the later Vedanta tradition and in modern Neo-Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199685_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199685-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="Nondualism_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondualism in Buddhism">Nondualism in Buddhism</a></div>

<p>According to the <a href="P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a>, both pluralism (<i>nānatta</i>) and monism (<i>ekatta</i>) are speculative <a href="View_(Buddhism)" title="View (Buddhism)">views</a>. A <a href="Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> commentary notes that the former is similar to or associated with <a href="Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a> (<i>ucchēdavāda</i>), and the latter is similar to or associated with eternalism (<i><a href="Sassatavada" title="Sassatavada">sassatavada</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Levels_of_truth">Levels of truth</h5></div>

<p>Within Buddhism, a rich variety of philosophical<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1994_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1994-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and pedagogical models<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellGimello1994_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellGimello1994-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be found. Various schools of Buddhism discern levels of truth:

</p>

<ul><li>The <a href="Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a> of the <a href="Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Three_natures" class="mw-redirect" title="Three natures">Three Natures</a> of the <a href="Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a></li>

<li><a href="Essence-Function" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Function">Essence-Function</a>, or <a href="Chinese_Ch%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Chán">Absolute-relative</a> in Chinese and Korean Buddhism</li>

<li>The <a href="Trikaya" title="Trikaya">Trikaya</a>-formule, consisting of

<ul><li>The <i><a href="Dharmak%C4%81ya" title="Dharmakāya">Dharmakāya</a></i> or <i>Truth body</i> which embodies the very principle of <a href="Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">enlightenment</a> and knows no limits or boundaries;</li>

<li>The <i><a href="Sambhogak%C4%81ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sambhogakāya">Sambhogakāya</a></i> or <i>body of mutual enjoyment</i> which is a body of bliss or clear light manifestation;</li>

<li>The <i><a href="Nirm%C4%81%E1%B9%87ak%C4%81ya" title="Nirmāṇakāya">Nirmāṇakāya</a></i> or <i>created body</i> which manifests in time and space.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul>

<p>The <a href="Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajnaparamita</a>-sutras and <a href="Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> emphasize the <a href="Nondualism" title="Nondualism">non-duality</a> of form and emptiness: "form is emptiness, emptiness is form", as the <a href="Heart_sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart sutra">heart sutra</a> says.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang-Chieh19869_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang-Chieh19869-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Chinese Buddhism this was understood to mean that ultimate reality is not a transcendental realm, but equal to the daily world of relative reality. This idea was well-situated for the existing Chinese culture, which emphasized the mundane world and society. But this does not tell how the absolute is present in the relative world:

</p>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To deny the duality of samsara and nirvana, as the Perfection of Wisdom does, or to demonstrate logically the error of dichotomizing conceptualization, as Nagarjuna does, is not to address the question of the relationship between samsara and nirvana -or, in more philosophical terms, between phenomenal and ultimate reality [...] What, then, is the relationship between these two realms?<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang-Chieh19869_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang-Chieh19869-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>This question is answered in such schemata as <a href="Five_Ranks" title="Five Ranks">the Five Ranks of Tozan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasulis200329_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKasulis200329-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="Ten_Bulls" title="Ten Bulls">Oxherding Pictures</a>, and <a href="Hakuin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakuin">Hakuin's Four ways of knowing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow2006_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELow2006-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sikhism">Sikhism</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">God in Sikhism</a></div>

<p>Sikhism complies with the concept of Absolute Monism. Sikh philosophy advocates that all that our senses comprehend is an illusion; God is the ultimate reality. Forms being subject to time shall pass away. God's Reality alone is eternal and abiding.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thought is that Atma (soul) is born from, and a reflection of, ParamAtma (Supreme Soul), and "will again merge into it", in the words of the fifth guru of Sikhs, <a href="Guru_Arjan" title="Guru Arjan">Guru Arjan</a>, "just as water merges back into the water."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>God and Soul are fundamentally the same; identical in the same way as Fire and its sparks. "Atam meh Ram, Ram meh Atam" which means "The Ultimate Eternal reality resides in the Soul and the Soul is contained in Him". As from one stream, millions of waves arise and yet the waves, made of water, again become water; in the same way all souls have sprung from the Universal Being and would blend again into it.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abrahamic_faiths">Abrahamic faiths</h3></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Judaism">Judaism</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></div>

<p>Jewish thought considers God as <a href="Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">separate from all physical, created things</a> and as existing outside of time.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to <a href="Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, God is an <a href="Incorporeality" title="Incorporeality">incorporeal being</a> that caused all other existence; to admit <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wiki/corporeal" class="extiw external" title="wikt:wiki/corporeal">corporeality</a> to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God, which is a contradiction to God as the <a href="Unmoved_mover#First_cause" title="Unmoved mover">first cause</a> and constitutes <a href="Heresy_in_Judaism" title="Heresy in Judaism">heresy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FoL-1_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FoL-1-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="Hasidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidic">Hasidic</a> mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God's <a href="Divine_simplicity#In_Jewish_thought" title="Divine simplicity">simpleness</a>, Maimonides saw no contradiction.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to <a href="Hasidic_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidic thought">Hasidic thought</a> (particularly as propounded by the 18th century, early 19th-century founder of <a href="Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a>, <a href="Shneur_Zalman_of_Liadi" title="Shneur Zalman of Liadi">Shneur Zalman of Liadi</a>), God is held to be <a href="Immanent" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanent">immanent</a> within <a href="Genesis_creation_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Genesis creation myth">creation</a> for two interrelated reasons:

</p>

<ol><li>A very strong Jewish belief is that "[t]he Divine life-force which brings [the universe] into existence must constantly be present ... were this life-force to forsake [the universe] for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ..."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Simultaneously, Judaism holds as <a href="Axiom" title="Axiom">axiomatic</a> that God is an absolute unity, and that he is perfectly simple, thus, if his sustaining power is within nature, then his essence is also within nature.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity">Christianity</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Christian anthropology</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Creator–creature_distinction">Creator–creature distinction</h5></div>

<p>Christians maintain that God created the universe <i><a href="Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a></i> and not from his own substance, so that the creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather <a href="Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcends</a> it. There is a movement of "<a href="Panentheism#Christianity" title="Panentheism">Christian Panentheism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Rejection_of_radical_dualism">Rejection of radical dualism</h5></div>

<p>In <i><a href="On_Free_Choice_of_the_Will" class="mw-redirect" title="On Free Choice of the Will">On Free Choice of the Will</a></i>, <a href="Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> argued, in the context of <a href="The_problem_of_evil" class="mw-redirect" title="The problem of evil">the problem of evil</a>, that evil is not the opposite of good, but rather merely the absence of good, something that does not have existence in itself. Likewise, <a href="C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> described evil as a "parasite" in <i><a href="Mere_Christianity" title="Mere Christianity">Mere Christianity</a></i>, as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence. Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of <a href="Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">moral absolutism</a>, and rejected the dualistic notion that God and <a href="Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a> are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite. Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of <a href="Michael_the_archangel" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael the archangel">Michael the archangel</a>. Due to this, Lewis instead argued for a more limited type of dualism.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other theologians, such as <a href="Greg_Boyd_(theologian)" title="Greg Boyd (theologian)">Greg Boyd</a>, have argued in more depth that the Biblical authors held a "limited dualism", meaning that God and Satan do engage in real battle, but only due to free will given by God, for the duration that God allows.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Mormonism">Mormonism</h5></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Materialism#Christianity" title="Materialism">Materialism § Christianity</a>, and <a href="Materialism_and_Christianity" title="Materialism and Christianity">Materialism and Christianity</a></div>

<p><a href="Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Latter Day Saint</a> theology also expresses a form of <a href="Dual_aspect_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual aspect theory">dual-aspect</a> monism via <a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a> and <a href="Eternity_of_the_world" title="Eternity of the world">eternalism</a>, claiming that creation was ex materia (as opposed to ex nihilo in conventional Christianity), as expressed by <a href="Parley_Pratt" class="mw-redirect" title="Parley Pratt">Parley Pratt</a> and echoed in view by the movement's founder <a href="Joseph_Smith" title="Joseph Smith">Joseph Smith</a>, making no distinction between the spiritual and the material, these being not just similarly eternal, but ultimately two manifestations of the same reality or substance.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Parley Pratt implies a <a href="Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a> paired with evolutionary adaptation noting, "these eternal, self-existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes, in a greater or less degree; or, in other words, they possess intelligence, adapted to their several spheres."<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Parley Pratt's view is also similar to Gottfried Leibniz's <a href="Monadology" title="Monadology">monadology</a>, which holds that "reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Brigham_Young" title="Brigham Young">Brigham Young</a> anticipates a proto-mentality of elementary particles with his vitalist view, "there is life in all matter, throughout the vast extent of all the eternities; it is in the rock, the sand, the dust, in water, air, the gases, and in short, in every description and organization of matter; whether it be solid, liquid, or gaseous, particle operating with particle."<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The LDS conception of matter is "essentially dynamic rather than static, if indeed it is not a kind of living energy, and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="John_A._Widstoe" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Widstoe">John A. Widstoe</a> held a similar, more vitalist view, that "Life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possess a kind of life... Matter... [is] intelligence... hence everything in the universe is alive." However, Widstoe resisted outright affirming a belief in <a href="Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">panpsychism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islam">Islam</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Quran">Quran</h5></div>

<p><a href="Vincent_Cornell" title="Vincent Cornell">Vincent Cornell</a> argues that the <a href="Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> provides a monist image of God by describing reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things.<sup id="cite_ref-Yusuf-2009_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yusuf-2009-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>But most argue that Abrahamic religious scriptures, especially the Quran, see creation and God as two separate existences. It explains that everything has been created by God and is under his control, but at the same time distinguishes creation as being dependent on the existence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-Yusuf-2009_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yusuf-2009-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Sufism">Sufism</h5></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></div>

<p>Some Sufi mystics advocate monism. One of the most notable being the 13th-century Persian poet <a href="Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a> (1207–1273) in his didactic poem <i><a href="Masnavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Masnavi">Masnavi</a></i> espoused monism.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholson_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholson-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rumi says in the <a href="Masnavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Masnavi">Masnavi</a>,

</p>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the shop for Unity (wahdat); anything that you see there except the One is an idol.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholson_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholson-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<p>Other Sufi mystics however, such as <a href="Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Ahmad Sirhindi</a>, upheld dualistic Monotheism (the separation of God and the Universe).<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The most influential of the <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> monists was the Sufi philosopher <a href="Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a> (1165–1240). He developed the concept of 'unity of being' (Arabic: <i><a href="Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">waḥdat al-wujūd</a></i>), which some argue is a monistic philosophy. Born in <a href="Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, he made an enormous impact on the Muslim world, where he was crowned "the great Master". In the centuries following his death, his ideas became increasingly controversial. <a href="Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Ahmad Sirhindi</a> criticised monistic understanding of 'unity of being', advocating the dualistic-compatible 'unity of witness' (Arabic: <i><a href="Sufi_metaphysics#Waḥdat_asḥ-Shuhūd" title="Sufi metaphysics">wahdat ash-shuhud</a></i>), maintaining separation of creator and creation.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a> reconciled the two ideas maintaining that their differences are semantic differences, arguing that the universal existence (which is different in creation to creator) and the divine essence are different and that the universal existence emanates (in a non-platonic sense) from the divine essence and that the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between the number four and a number being even.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The doctrine of <i><a href="Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">waḥdat al-wujūd</a></i> also enjoys considerable following in the rationalist philosophy of <a href="Twelver_Shi'ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a>, with the most famous modern-day adherent being <a href="Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baháʼí_Faith">Baháʼí Faith</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_the_unity_of_religion" title="Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion">Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion</a></div>

<p>Although the <a href="Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_teachings" title="Baháʼí teachings">teachings</a> of the <a href="Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these include statements of a monist nature (e.g., <i><a href="The_Seven_Valleys" title="The Seven Valleys">The Seven Valleys</a></i> and the <i><a href="Hidden_Words" title="Hidden Words">Hidden Words</a></i>). The differences between dualist and monist views are reconciled by the teaching that these opposing viewpoints are caused by differences in the observers themselves, not in that which is observed. This is not a 'higher truth/lower truth' position. God is unknowable. For man it is impossible to acquire any direct knowledge of God or the Absolute, because any knowledge that one has, is relative.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Cosmic_pluralism" title="Cosmic pluralism">Cosmic pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dialectical_monism" title="Dialectical monism">Dialectical monism</a></li>

<li><a href="Henosis" title="Henosis">Henosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Indefinite_monism" title="Indefinite monism">Indefinite monism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>

<li><a href="Material_monism" class="mw-redirect" title="Material monism">Material monism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></li>

<li><a href="Monistic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Monistic idealism">Monistic idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontological_pluralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological pluralism">Ontological pluralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Realistic_monism" class="mw-redirect" title="Realistic monism">Realistic monism</a></li>

<li><a href="Waheguru" title="Waheguru">Sikhism</a></li>

<li><a href="Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>

<li><a href="Univocity_of_being" title="Univocity of being">Univocity of being</a></li>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Such as <a href="Behaviourism" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviourism">Behaviourism</a>, <a href="Type-identity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Type-identity theory">Type-identity theory</a> and <a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="Creation_Spirituality" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation Spirituality">Creation Spirituality</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion of the resultant <a href="Paradox" title="Paradox">paradox</a>, see <i><a href="Tzimtzum" title="Tzimtzum">Tzimtzum</a></i>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a href="Negative_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative theology">Negative theology</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the "Guide for the Perplexed", especially chapter I:50.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrugger1972_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrugger1972">Brugger 1972</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strawson, G. (2014 in press): "Nietzsche's metaphysics?". In: Dries, M. & Kail, P. (eds): "Nietzsche on Mind and Nature". Oxford University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3051045/Nietzsches_Metaphysics_2015">PDF of draft</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossLivingstone1974-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossLivingstone1974_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossLivingstone1974">Cross & Livingstone 1974</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChande2000277-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChande2000277_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChande2000">Chande 2000</a>, p. 277.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDasgupta199270-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDasgupta199270_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDasgupta1992">Dasgupta 1992</a>, p. 70.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard1999-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard1999_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRenard1999">Renard 1999</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stepaniants, M. (2002). <i>Introduction to Eastern Thought</i>. United States: AltaMira Press. p. 155.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberts, M. V. (2010). <i>Dualities: A Theology of Difference</i>. Presbyterian Publishing Corporation. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780664234492</bdi>. p. 21. Discusses why Advaita Vedanta is nondual while Kashmir Shaivism is monist.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frawley, D. (2015). <i>Shiva: The Lord of Yoga</i>. United States: Lotus Press.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNadler2024" class="citation cs2">Nadler, Steven (2024), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2024/entries/spinoza/">"Baruch Spinoza"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2024 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-31</span></span></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-New_Dictionary-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-New_Dictionary_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-New_Dictionary_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPeterdi_Poppa2018" class="citation web cs1">Peter, Machamer; di Poppa, Francesca (2018-05-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/monism#4">"Monism, New Dictionary of the History of Ideas"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-07-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_M._Young1996" class="citation book cs1">Robert M. Young (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://human-nature.com/rmyoung/papers/pap102h.html">"The mind–body problem"</a>. In Olby, R. C.; Cantor, G. N.; Christie, J. R.; Hodges, M. J. S. (eds.). <i>Companion to the History of Modern Science</i> (Paperback reprint of Routledge 1990 ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. <span class="nowrap">702–</span>711. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-415-14578-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Robinson, Howard (Nov 3, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2011/entries/dualism/">"Dualism"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2011 ed.).</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLagerlund2010" class="citation book cs1">Lagerlund, Henrik (2010). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IV-dcQAACAAJ"><i>Forming the Mind: Essays on the Internal Senses and the Mind/Body Problem from Avicenna to the Medical Enlightenment</i></a> (Paperback reprint of 2007 ed.). <a href="Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. p. 3. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-9048175307</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrmson1991297_15-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUrmson1991">Urmson 1991</a>, p. 297.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaffer2010-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaffer2010_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchaffer2010">Schaffer 2010</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFiske2010">Fiske 2010</a>, p. 195.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195–196-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiske2010195–196_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFiske2010">Fiske 2010</a>, pp. 195–196.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMandik2010-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik2010_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMandik2010">Mandik 2010</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin2009-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlin2009_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaughlin2009">McLaughlin 2009</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Schaffer-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schaffer_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schaffer_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schaffer_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Schaffer, Jonathan, Monism: The Priority of the Whole, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.jonathanschaffer.org/monism.pdf">http://www.jonathanschaffer.org/monism.pdf</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sariel-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sariel_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sariel_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sariel_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sariel, Aviram. "Jonasian Gnosticism." Harvard Theological Review 116.1 (2023): 91-122, here 99.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchaffer2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schaffer, Jonathan (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/monism">"Monism"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2015 ed.).</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMandik201076-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMandik201076_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMandik2010">Mandik 2010</a>, p. 76.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLenin1909" class="citation book cs1">Lenin, Vladimir (1909). <i>Materialism and Empirio-criticism</i>. World Socialist Web Site: Foreign Languages Publishing House.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19701–7-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19701–7_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbernethyLangford1970">Abernethy & Langford 1970</a>, pp. 1–7.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19708–9-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbernethyLangford19708–9_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbernethyLangford1970">Abernethy & Langford 1970</a>, pp. 8–9.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn1854" class="citation book cs1">Blackburn, John (1854). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cbEGAAAAQAAJ&q=Stoics+taught+that+there+is+only+one+substance,+identified+as+God&pg=PA9"><i>The popular Biblical educator [by J. Blackburn]</i></a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De la causa, principio e Uno, London, 1584</i></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De monade (De monade, numero et figura liber consequens quinque de minimo magno et mensura), Frankfurt, 1591</i></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wonderslifeapop01haecgoog"><i>Wonders of Life</i></a> by Ernst Haeckel.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RdsdAAAAMAAJ">The Evolution of Man: A Popular Scientific Study, Volume 2</a> by Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/ae962862-03fc-11e3-8aab-00144feab7de">"Review: Giacomo Leopardi's 'Zibaldone'"</a></span>. <i>Financial Times</i>. 2013-08-16. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/ae962862-03fc-11e3-8aab-00144feab7de">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-05-05</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1967" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. New York: Macmillan. p. 34.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The New Oxford Dictionary Of English</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. 1998. p. 1341. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-861263-X</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPicton1905" class="citation book cs1">Picton, James Allanson (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pantheismitsstor00pictrich"><i>Pantheism: its story and significance</i></a>. Chicago: Archibald Constable & Co. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4191-4008-2</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Plumptre-1879-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plumptre-1879_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plumptre-1879_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPlumptre1879" class="citation book cs1">Plumptre, Constance (1879). <i>General sketch of the history of pantheism, Volume 2</i>. London: Samuel Deacon & Co. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>5, 8, 29. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7661-5502-2</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShoham2010" class="citation book cs1">Shoham, Schlomo Giora (2010). <i>To Test the Limits of Our Endurance</i>. Cambridge Scholars. p. 111. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4438-2068-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crosby, Donald A. (2008). Living with Ambiguity: Religious Naturalism and the Menace of Evil. State University of New York Press. p. 124. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7914-7519-0</bdi>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Erwin_Fahlbusch,_Geoffrey_William_Bromiley,_David_B._Barrett_1999-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Erwin_Fahlbusch,_Geoffrey_William_Bromiley,_David_B._Barrett_1999_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erwin_Fahlbusch,_Geoffrey_William_Bromiley,_David_B._Barrett_1999_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFahlbuschBromileyBarrett1999" class="citation book cs1">Fahlbusch, Erwin; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Barrett, David B. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sCY4sAjTGIYC&pg=PA21"><i>The Encyclopedia of Christianity</i></a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 21. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8028-2416-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/441533/pantheism/38168/Pantheism-and-panentheism-in-non-Western-cultures">[1]</a> Britannica – Pantheism and Panentheism in non-Western cultures</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whiting, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_UfRgCZThWYC&dq=shakti+panentheism&pg=PR8">Religions for Today</a> Stanley Thomes (Publishers) Ltd. P. VIII. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7487-0586-4</bdi>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSean_F._Johnston2009" class="citation book cs1">Sean F. Johnston (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofscience0000john"><i>The History of Science: A Beginner's Guide p. 90</i></a></span>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-85168-681-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alex Ashman, <i><a href="BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A25172309">Metaphysical Isms</a>".</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENakamura1991-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakamura1991_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNakamura1991">Nakamura 1991</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuligandla1997-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuligandla1997_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPuligandla1997">Puligandla 1997</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuligandla199750-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuligandla199750_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuligandla199750_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPuligandla1997">Puligandla 1997</a>, p. 50.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1992-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1992_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalupahana1992">Kalupahana 1992</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalupahana1994">Kalupahana 1994</a>.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERambachan1994-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambachan1994_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERambachan1994_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRambachan1994">Rambachan 1994</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawley2006-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawley2006_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHawley2006">Hawley 2006</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharf1995-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharf1995_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharf1995">Sharf 1995</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard199959-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard199959_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRenard1999">Renard 1999</a>, p. 59.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERenard199931-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERenard199931_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRenard1999">Renard 1999</a>, p. 31.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaezumiGlassman2007-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaezumiGlassman2007_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaezumiGlassman2007">Maezumi & Glassman 2007</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBuswellLopez2014" class="citation book cs1">Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S., eds. (2014). <i>The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-691-15786-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRyan_陈明2014" class="citation book cs1">Ryan 陈明, Paul F. (2014). <i>Chinese Medical Classics: Selected Readings</i>. People's Medical Publishing House. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9787117189316</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilhelm Halbfass (1995), Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta, State University of New York Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0791425824</bdi>, pages 137–143</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeaneane Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academic Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1845193461</bdi>, page xxviii</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels2004_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDense1999191-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDense1999191_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDense1999">Dense 1999</a>, p. 191.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukerji1983-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukerji1983_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMukerji1983">Mukerji 1983</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComans1993-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComans1993_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComans1993_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFComans1993">Comans 1993</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996257-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996257_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 257.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996258_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 258.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996259-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996259_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 259.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199685-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199685_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 85.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="David_Kalupahana" title="David Kalupahana">David Kalupahana</a>, <i>Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.</i> The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 88. The passage is SN 2.77.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1994-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1994_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1994">Williams 1994</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuswellGimello1994-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuswellGimello1994_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuswellGimello1994">Buswell & Gimello 1994</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Welwood, John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.purifymind.com/PlayMind.htm"><i>The Play of the Mind: Form, Emptiness, and Beyond</i></a>, accessed January 13, 2007</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiang-Chieh19869-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang-Chieh19869_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiang-Chieh19869_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiang-Chieh1986">Liang-Chieh 1986</a>, p. 9.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKasulis200329-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKasulis200329_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKasulis2003">Kasulis 2003</a>, p. 29.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allaboutsikhs.com/sikhism-articles/the-idea-of-the-supreme-being-god-in-sikhism">"The Idea Of The Supreme Being (God) In Sikhism – Sikhism Articles – Gateway to Sikhism"</a>. <i>Gateway to Sikhism</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGujral2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gujral, Maninder S (19 December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thesikhencyclopedia.com/metaphysics/atma">"ATMA"</a>. <i>The Sikh Encyclopedia -ਸਿੱਖ ਧਰਮ ਵਿਸ਼ਵਕੋਸ਼</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2009" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Jagraj (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFm9_Jc1ykcC&q=atma+merges+in+parmatma+sikhism&pg=PA266"><i>A Complete Guide to Sikhism</i></a>. Unistar. p. 266. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9788171427543</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FoL-1-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FoL-1_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>Foundations of the Law</i>, Chapter 1</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/7988/jewish/Chapter-2.htm">"Chapter 2"</a>. <i>Chabad.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFClaytonPeacocke2004" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Philip; Peacocke, A. R. (2004). <i>In whom we live and move and have our being : panentheistic reflections on God's presence in a scientific world</i>. William B. Eerdmans Pub. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8028-0978-2</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53880197">53880197</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, C. S. 1970, "God and Evil" in <i>God in the Dock: Essays in Theology and Ethics</i>, ed. W. Hooper, Grand Rapids, <a href="Michigan" title="Michigan">MI</a>: Eerdsman, pp. 21–24</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyd, Gregory. A 1971, <i>God at War</i>, Downers Grove, <a href="Illinois" title="Illinois">IL</a>: InterVarsity Press, p. 185</span>

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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTerryl2015" class="citation book cs1">Terryl, Givens (2015). <i>Wrestling the angel : the foundations of Mormon thought: cosmos, God, humanity</i>. Oxford. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-979492-8</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/869757526">869757526</a>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPratt1855" class="citation book cs1">Pratt, Parley (1855). <i>Key to the Science of Theology</i>. Liverpool.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcMurrin1965" class="citation book cs1">McMurrin, Sterling (1965). <i>The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion</i>. Salt Lake City.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Wagoner2009" class="citation book cs1">Van Wagoner, Richard S. (2009). <i>The Complete Discourses of Brigham Young</i>. Salt Lake City.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siddiqui, B. H. "Islam: Synthesis of Tradition and Change."</span>

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<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ansari, Abdul Haq. "SHAYKH AḤMAD SIRHINDĪ'S DOCTRINE OF" WAḤDAT AL-SHUHŪD"." Islamic Studies 37.3 (1998): 281-313.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn'Arabi in the later Islamic tradition: The making of a polemical image in medieval Islam. Suny Press, 1999.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nizami, F. A. "23 Islam in the Indian Sub-Continent." The World's Religions (2004): 368.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKhan1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Khan, Hafiz (1998). "Shah Wali Allah (Qutb al-Din Ahmad al-Rahim) (1703–62)". <i><a href="Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. <a href="Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ansari, Abdul Haq. "Shah waliy Allah Attempts to Revise wahdat al-wujud." Arabica 35.2 (1988): 197-213.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Knysh, Alexander. "'Irfan' Revisited: Khomeini and the Legacy of Islamic Mystical Philosophy", 633.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDaphne_DaumeLouise_Watson1992" class="citation book cs1">Daphne Daume; Louise Watson, eds. (1992). "The Baháʼí Faith". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1988britannicabo0000daum"><i>Britannica Book of the Year</i></a>. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-85229-486-7</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMomen1988" class="citation book cs1">Momen, Moojan (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bahai-library.com/momen_relativism_bahai_metaphysics"><i>Studies in the Bábí and Baháʼí Religions vol. 5, chapter: A Basis For Baháʼí Metaphysics</i></a>. Kalimat Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">185–</span>217. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-933770-72-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAbernethyLangford1970" class="citation cs2">Abernethy, George L; Langford, Thomas A. (1970), <i>Introduction to Western Philosophy:Pre-Socratics to Mill</i>, Belmont, CA: Dickenson</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBrugger1972" class="citation cs2">Brugger, Walter, ed. (1972), <i>Diccionario de Filosofía</i>, Barcelona: Herder, art. <b>dualismo</b>, <b>monismo</b>, <b>pluralismo</b></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBuswellGimello1994" class="citation cs2">Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Gimello, Robert M., eds. (1994), <i>Paths to Liberation. The Marga and its Transformations in Buddhist Thought</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChande2000" class="citation cs2">Chande, M.B. (2000), <i>Indian Philosophy In Modern Times</i>, Atlantic Publishers & Dist</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFComans1993" class="citation cs2">Comans, Michael (January 1993), <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.realization.org/page/doc2/doc200.html">"The Question of the Importance of Samadhi in Modern and Classical Advaita Vedanta"</a></span>, <i>Philosophy East and West</i>, <b>43</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">19–</span>38, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1399467">10.2307/1399467</a>, <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399467">1399467</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170603063937/http://www.realization.org/page/doc2/doc200.html">archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-03<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-01-03</span></span></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCrossLivingstone1974" class="citation cs2">Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (1974), "monism", <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>, OUP</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDasgupta1992" class="citation cs2">Dasgupta, Surendranath (1992), <i>A history of Indian philosophy part 1</i>, Motilall Banarsidass</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDense1999" class="citation cs2">Dense, Christian D. Von (1999), <i>Philosophers and Religious Leaders</i>, Greenwood Publishing Group</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFiske2010" class="citation cs2">Fiske, Susan T.; et al. (2010), <i>Handbook of Social Psychology</i>, vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFlood1996" class="citation cs2">Flood, Gavin (1996), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo"><i>An Introduction to Hinduism</i></a></span>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-43878-0</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHawley2006" class="citation cs2">Hawley, michael (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/"><i>Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975)</i></a></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKalupahana1992" class="citation cs2">Kalupahana, David J. (1992), <i>The Principles of Buddhist Psychology</i>, Delhi: ri Satguru Publications</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKalupahana1994" class="citation cs2">Kalupahana, David J. (1994), <i>A history of Buddhist philosophy</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKasulis2003" class="citation cs2">Kasulis, Thomas P. (2003), Takeuchi Yoshinori (ed.), "Ch'an Spirituality", <i>Buddhist Spirituality. Later China, Korea, Japan and the Modern World</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLiang-Chieh1986" class="citation cs2">Liang-Chieh (1986), <i>The Record of Tung-shan</i>, William F. Powell transl., Kuroda Institute</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLow2006" class="citation cs2">Low, Albert (2006), <i>Hakuin on Kensho. The Four Ways of Knowing</i>, Boston & London: Shambhala</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLoy1988" class="citation cs2">Loy, David (1988), <i>Nonduality: A Study in Comparative Philosophy</i>, New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-57392-359-1</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMaezumiGlassman2007" class="citation cs2">Maezumi, Taizan; Glassman, Bernie (2007), <i>The Hazy Moon of Enlightenment</i>, Wisdom Publ</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMandik2010" class="citation cs2">Mandik, Pete (2010), <i>Key Terms in Philosophy of Mind</i>, Continuum International Publish.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcLaughlin2009" class="citation cs2">McLaughlin, Brian; et al. (2009), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mind</i>, Oxford University Press</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMichaels2004" class="citation cs2">Michaels, Axel (2004), <i>Hinduism. Past and present</i>, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMukerji1983" class="citation cs2">Mukerji, Mādhava Bithika (1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anandamayi.org/books/Bithika2.htm"><i>Neo-Vedanta and Modernity</i></a>, Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNakamura1991" class="citation cs2">Nakamura, Hajime (1991), <i>Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples: India, China, Tibet, Japan</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F23054">10125/23054</a></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPuligandla1997" class="citation cs2">Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), <i>Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy</i>, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRambachan1994" class="citation cs2">Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), <i>The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas</i>, University of Hawaii Press</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRenard1999" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Renard, Philip (1999), <i>Ramana Upanishad: de verzamelde geschriften van Ramana Maharshi</i> (in Dutch), Utrecht: Servire, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-9021587448</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchaffer2010" class="citation cs2">Schaffer, Jonathan (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jonathanschaffer.org/monism.pdf">"Monism: The Priority of the Whole"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Philosophical Review</i>, <b>119</b> (1): 31–76), <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00318108-2009-025">10.1215/00318108-2009-025</a></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSharf1995" class="citation cs2">Sharf, Robert H. (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190412103407/http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1995,%20Buddhist%20Modernism.pdf">"Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>NUMEN</i>, <b>42</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">228–</span>283, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568527952598549">10.1163/1568527952598549</a>, <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43810">2027.42/43810</a></span>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1995,%20Buddhist%20Modernism.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-04-12<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-10</span></span></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFUrmson1991" class="citation cs2">Urmson, James Opie (1991), <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy and Philosophers</i>, Routledge</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1994" class="citation cs2">Williams, Paul (1994), <i>Mahayana Buddhism</i>, Routledge, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-415-02537-0</bdi></cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation cs2">Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2002), <i>Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism</i>, Sussex Academic Press</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">Hori, Victor Sogen (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/translating_zen_phrasebook.pdf"><i>Translating the Zen Phrase Book. In: Nanzan Bulletin 23 (1999)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">Momen, Moojan (2009) [Originally published as <i>The Phenomenon of Religion</i> in 1999], <i>Understanding Religion: A Thematic Approach</i>, Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-85168-599-8</bdi>, <a href="OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25434252M">25434252M</a></cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A. (1957), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh"><i>A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy</i></a> (12th Princeton Paperback ed.), Princeton University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-691-01958-4</bdi></cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{citation}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">White, David Gordon, ed. (2000), <i>Introduction. In: Tantra in practice</i>, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press</cite></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Schaeffer" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Jonathan Schaeffer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/monism/">"Monism"</a>. In <a href="Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite></li>

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<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10483a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> – Monism</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/lexicon/">Hinduism's Online Lexicon</a> – (search for Monism)</li>

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<li><a href="Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul>

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<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Belief_systems25" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Belief_systems25" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Belief" title="Belief">Belief systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamism</a></li>

<li><a href="Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li>

<li><a href="Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li>

<li><a href="Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li>

<li><a href="Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Immanence" title="Immanence">Immanence</a></li>

<li><a href="Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li>

<li><a href="%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Shramanism</a></li>

<li><a href="East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li>

<li><a href="Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">Transcendence</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy269" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophy269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>

<li><a href="Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>

<li><a href="Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a>

<li><a href="Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>

<li><a href="Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>

<ul><li><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>

<li><a href="Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>

<li><a href="Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>

<li><a href="Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li>

<li><a href="Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li>

<li><a href="Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>

<li><a href="Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>

<li><a href="Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li>

<li><a href="Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li>

<li><a href="Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>

<li><a href="Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li>

<li><a href="Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>

<ul><li><a href="Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li>

<li><a href="Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li>

<li><a href="%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li>

<li><a href="Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li>

<li><a href="Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li>

<li><a href="Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li>

<li><a href="Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li>

<li><a href="Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li>

<li><a href="Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li>

<li><a href="Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li>

<li><a href="Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li>

<li><a href="%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li>

<li><a href="Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li>

<li><a href="Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li>

<li><a href="Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li>

<li><a href="Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>

<ul><li><a href="Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li>

<li><a href="Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li>

<li><a href="Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li>

<li><a href="Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li>

<li><a href="Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li>

<li><a href="Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>

<li><a href="Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li>

<li><a href="Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>

<li><a href="British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>

<li><a href="German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>

<li><a href="Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li>

<li><a href="Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Pessimism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>

<li><a href="Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>

<li><a href="Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li>

<li><a href="Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li>

<li><a href="Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>

<li><a href="Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li>

<li><a href="British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a>

<ul><li><a href="Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li>

<li><a href="Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li>

<li><a href="Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li>

<li><a href="French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li>

<li><a href="German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li>

<li><a href="Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li>

<li><a href="Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></b></li>

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<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics343" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Metaphysics343" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>

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<li><a href="Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li>

<li><a href="Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>

<li><a href="Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li>

<li><a href="Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li>

<li><a href="Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li>

<li><a href="Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Cogito%2C_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmos" title="Cosmos">Cosmos</a></li>

<li><a href="Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li>

<li><a href="Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li>

<li><a href="Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li>

<li><a href="Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Importance" title="Importance">Importance</a></li>

<li><a href="Information" title="Information">Information</a>

<li><a href="Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li>

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<li><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li>

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<li><a href="Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li>

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<li><a href="Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li>

<li><a href="Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li>

<li><a href="Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li>

<li><a href="Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>

<li><a href="Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li>

<li><a href="R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li>

<li><a href="Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li>

<li><a href="Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li>

<li><a href="Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li>

<li><a href="Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li>

<li><a href="Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li>

<li><a href="Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 50)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 270)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> and <i><a href="Al-Nijat" title="Al-Nijat">Al-Nijat</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1641)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1677)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1710)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1714)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1781)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1783)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1807)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1818)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1846)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1927)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1943)</span></li>

<li><i><a href="Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li>

<li><a href="Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li>

<li><a href="Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li>

<li><a href="C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li>

<li><a href="Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li>

<li><a href="Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li>

<li><a href="Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li>

<li><a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li>

<li><a href="Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>

<li><a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li>

<li><a href="Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li>

<li><a href="New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li>

<li><a href="Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li>

<li><a href="Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_machine" title="Animal machine">Animal machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li>

<li><a href="Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li>

<li><a href="Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li>

<li>Mental process</li>

<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li>

<li><a href="Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li>

<li><a href="Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li>

<li>Philosophers category</li>

<li>Project</li>

<li>Task Force</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion485" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophy_of_religion485" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li>

<li><a href="Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li>

<li><a href="Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_Speaks" title="God Speaks">God Speaks</a></li>

<li><a href="Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li>

<li><a href="Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>

<li><a href="God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li>

<li><a href="Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li>

<li><a href="Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li>

<li><a href="God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li>

<li><a href="Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lewis'_trilemma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis' trilemma">Trilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam cosmological</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmological_argument#Aquinas's_argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmological_argument#Duns_Scotus's_metaphysical_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Metaphysical</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li>

<li><a href="Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Existential choice</a></li>

<li><a href="Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuned universe</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontological_argument#Baruch_Spinoza" title="Ontological argument">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematics_and_God" title="Mathematics and God">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Berkeley#Theology" title="George Berkeley">Mystical idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural-law</a></li>

<li><a href="Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a>

<ul><li><a href="Seddiqin_argument" title="Seddiqin argument">Seddiqin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a>

<ul><li><a href="Proslogion" title="Proslogion">Anselm</a></li>

<li><a href="G%C3%B6del's_ontological_proof" title="Gödel's ontological proof">Gödel</a></li>

<li><a href="Meinongian_argument" title="Meinongian argument">Meinongian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontological_argument#Modal_versions_of_the_ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Modal</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Mulla Sadra</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pascal's_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li>

<li><a href="Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_responses_to_the_problem_of_evil" title="Religious responses to the problem of evil">Responses to the problem of evil</a></li>

<li><a href="Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a>

<ul><li><a href="Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li>

<li><a href="Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Existence_of_God#Arguments_from_witnesses'_testimony" title="Existence of God">Testimony</a>

<ul><li><a href="Existence_of_God#Arguments_from_historical_events" title="Existence of God">Historical events</a></li>

<li><a href="Existence_of_God#Arguments_from_the_authority_of_historical_personages" title="Existence of God">Historical personages</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li>

<li><a href="Atheist's_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li>

<li><a href="Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Occam's_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li>

<li><a href="Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li>

<li><a href="Russell's_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li>

<li><a href="Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li>

<li><a href="Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li>

<li><a href="Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li>

<li><a href="Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li>

<li><a href="Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li>

<li><a href="Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li>

<li><a href="Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li>

<li><a href="Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li>

<li><a href="Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>

<li><a href="Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li>

<li><a href="East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li>

<li><a href="Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Philosophers<br>of religion</div><br>(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li>

<li><a href="Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li>

<li><a href="Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li>

<li><a href="Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li>

<li><a href="Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li>

<li><a href="James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li>

<li><a href="Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li>

<li><a href="Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li>

<li><a href="William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li>

<li><a href="Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li>

<li><a href="Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li>

<li><a href="Baron_d'Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li>

<li><a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br>1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li>

<li><a href="Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br>1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li>

<li><a href="Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li>

<li><a href="William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li>

<li><a href="Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li>

<li><a href="Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br>postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li>

<li><a href="Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li>

<li><a href="Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li>

<li><a href="Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li>

<li><a href="George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li>

<li><a href="Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br>1990<br>2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li>

<li><a href="Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li>

<li><a href="Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li>

<li><a href="Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>

<li><a href="Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li>

<li><a href="Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li>

<li><a href="Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li>

<li><a href="Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li></ul>

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